It has been nearly 40 years since Mr. McGuire took the recent graduate, Benjamin, aside from the pool party and whispered that one word, plastics. We've come a long ways in knowing what can and can't be made of plastics, and have both wild successes and dismal failures in applying these fascinating new substances to our everyday commercial and industrial products. Savvy engineering skills in applying plastics can make or break a product design.

There was a time when things made of plastics were considered cheap and flimsy. Not so any more. New polymers have greatly expanded the horizons of possibilities. We board a jet to cross the Pacific made mostly of plastics. The frontal armor of an M–1 Abrams battle tank contains plastics, and previously unattainable temperatures and pressures of our power transmission equipment rely on plastics. Even the safety of nuclear power plants is dependent on plastics.

Engineering universities still teach metallurgy, metal fabrication techniques and metals performance in mechanical systems, but few teach plastics outside a cursory introduction to the topic. The plastic polymer manufacturers are the main sources for sound plastic design technology. This means that finding talented design engineers to perform conversions from existing materials to plastics is sometimes not easy.

While it may seem like making a part in plastics is less expensive than in metal, more often than not, the reverse is true. Metal is inexpensive and stamping, forming and machining it is fast, inexpensive and requires minimal investment in tooling. Conversely, plastic polymers are fairly expensive, especially engineering polymers with the kind of physical properties needed for many commercial and industrial components. In addition, plastic molding requires expensive tooling; even for single cavity prototypes while multi cavity production tooling can produce quite a sticker shock.

So if plastics are more expensive to tool up and run than their metal counterparts, why bother to convert from metals to plastics? Well, the secret to making a less expensive assembly involves integrating a number of components into a single unit. Typically four or five metal components can be integrated into a single plastic replacement part. Such things as pins, retainers, clips, brackets, etc. are often easy to integrate.

Doing this not only saves on tooling up multiple components; it also saves on the costs of purchasing, shipping, inspecting, and inventorying multiple part numbers. It also saves in cost of quality, because often, sub assemblies made up of a number of components can get assembled incorrectly. In a steering column subassembly used on one of the big three automaker's most popular automobile, it took redesigning four components into a single plastic assembly to finally get their rejected parts PPM down below the desired 25 PPM zero defect level. The integrated plastic part cost just about exactly the same as the four components it replaced but the savings in reducing the number of parts plus the vastly improved quality level achieved, made it a highly profitable choice.

Integrating several parts together nearly always results in a reduced labor cost in assembling those parts as well. Even in automated equipment, handling one part instead of four is less expensive and almost always less time consuming.

Some other advantages of using plastics over metals include a lighter weight finished assembly. In terms of handling and shipping, this can represent a substantial savings. Plastic parts also don't tarnish or corrode, so do not require plating or coating operations that metal parts usually need.

Intelligent design of plastic components can be a boon for many products currently using metal parts. Often substantial savings can be garnered in parts count, ease of manufacture, labor rates, and the cost of quality. The tidal wave of changeover from metals to plastics is continuing and there is no indication that the trend will not continue or even accelerate as new and better polymers are being developed.

Go for the bronze! Why settle for gold or silver when you can have artwork and sculpture crafted by bronze sculpture experts? When you purchase bronze artwork, you know that it's a product that took careful design, intricate planning and fine craftsmanship to produce.

Since ancient time artists have employed different techniques to make bronze figures, animals, candlesticks and other pieces of art. Bronze casting is highly skilled work, requiring vast knowledge about design, metallurgy, and casting techniques.

Bronze products are cast from molds. The mold is created from a detailed model of the finished product. Hot molten bronze is poured into the mold and allowed to cool to produce the work of art. The mold is then removed and the artwork is then ready for the finishing touches. It sounds simple, but it's not. As many as fifteen steps, or more, are required to get to a finished product.

When sand casting, the artist makes a replica of the object to be produced, then has to make a mold. Sand and clay are compacted around the object to make the mold. Then molten bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, is poured into the mold and allowed to cool and harden. The rough metal is then polished, ground and preened to create the work of art, toy, or sculpture. Other metals or decorative interest can be added.

If the artist utilized the lost wax method of casting, then a wax «lining» is added to the mold. The completed wax sculpture is then heated until the wax melts and runs out. The space that is created is then filled with molten bronze. This process produces a sculpture that is very fine in detail. Sandblasting, polishing and assembly follow.

So, really, why settle for gold or silver, when you can have a piece of art, sculpture, toy, candlestick, wine stopper, or figure crafted by bronze experts. When you own a cast bronze sculpture you know the expertise, craftsmanship and artistic talent that went into creating it. So go for the bronze!

For 3 decades, Scott Nelles [http://nellesstudios.com/history/history.php] has been creating sculptures of beauty and creativity in cast bronze. From toys to candlesticks, his work displays elegant design and superb craftsmanship. In his Northern Michigan studio, Nelles is inspired by the surrounding nature. He uses the timeless methods of sand–casting and hand–finishing to create wonderful pieces of sculpture in cast bronze and aluminum. You can visit his website to see and learn more.

Handicraft is described as something made entirely by hand, without technological help. This has been done in India for at least 5000 years. Although some stone and bone weapons have been found that predate the oldest handicrafts, these are not considered handicrafts. India's history of arts and crafts is interesting, covering thousands of years and millions of square miles. Indian traditional handicrafts revolve around the needs of commoners, patrons, royalty, religious beliefs, and domestic and foreign trade.

The earliest proven archaeological discoveries of Indian handicrafts date back to the Indus Valley civilization circa 3000 B.C. At this time Indian craftsmen excelled in making jewelry, pottery, beads, terracotta, and weaving. This period represents a significant technical advancement in the field of handicrafts, as evidenced by excavations in Mohenjodaro, Lothal, Kotdigy, Dholaveera, Harappa, and others. Many artifacts have been found that reflect the burgeoning skill of the local craftsmen of the era.

The next significant advancement in handicrafts took place in the Vedic age, around 1500 to 700 BC. The Vedas excelled in weaving, wood crafting, and pottery making, and began using clay, wood, and metal in their handicrafts. Later in the Vedic period, a noteworthy development was the use of iron in weapons on a large scale. This is the period when crafts traditions became enmeshed in the culture and social structure.

Indian handicrafts came close to perfection during the Maurva period, highlighted by the advancement in stone crafts. This is the period of the great transformation of Ashoka to Buddhist reformism after hardcore imperialism, and craftsmen were now indulged in many activities. It is believed that at least 84,000 stupas were created under Ashoka, the most prominent of which can still be seen today at Vaishali, Amaravati, Bharhut, Sanchi, and Mathura. The iron pillars of Vaishali and Delhi are wonderful examples of metallurgy dating from the same period.

A period of assimilation of regional influence in Indian arts and crafts followed the Maurvan. This was a time of great political turmoil, India could not be ruled for long periods by a single dynasty. Invasions by Indo–Bactrians, Shakas, Indo–Greeks, and Kushanas turned the Indian political scene upside down. The handicrafts of this period were strongly influenced by these invasions of central Asians and others, as evidenced by Buddhist sculptures from this period found at Swat Valley, Bamiyan, Taxila, Begram, and other areas. A direct result of Greek influence at this time is the depiction of Buddha with curly hair, draped in flowing clothing. The Central Asian invasions had their greatest influence on the sculpture, leather products, metal works, jewelry, and textiles of the period.

The Gupta age, a period of efficient ruling, political stability, and consistent patronage of arts and crafts, has been called India's classical age. Some highlights of this time are significant advancement in both art and techniques of wood and stone carving, weaving, jewelry making, and sculpture, and includes beautiful murals of Aianta. Major advances were made at this time in art and literature, but science was also coming into its own, including mathematics, astronomy, physiology, and astrology. Sculptures of metal and stone from this period represent high quality standards. The temples of Ellora, cut from rock, represent the highest standard of stone craft in India known at the time.

Development in arts and crafts shifted to the southern peninsula of India during the Medieval period. Trade and commerce based on the handicrafts of local artisans was vigorously supported by the Chola and Vijaynagara empires. This period saw the use of intricate detail carved in temples, and great importance was given to gems and jewelry. This period saw the peak of silk weaving and bronze sculpture, while in northern India Delhi Sultanate allowed wood carving, metal works, jewelry, weaving, and pottery making to flourish. Arts and science reached new heights under the patronage of the Mughal empire, with the emphasis on architecture. Painting was the hallmark under the emperors Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Akbar, while Mughal paintings influenced other regions, such as Pahari, Boondi, Kota, and more. Weaving and metallurgy flourished at this time as well, with metal working reaching several milestones during the medieval period. Evidence exists of battles fought with guns and cannons technologically advanced for the era.

We can see from the archaeological evidence the evolution of arts and crafts among civilizations of the Indus valley from 3000 B.C. to the past few hundred years. The lifestyles of the various peoples inhabiting the area reflect the integral role played by craft traditions. Handicrafts in some cases came to identify groups of people, as the caste system limited use of certain crafts to groups of people. The people confined to a certain caste were responsible for much creativity and innovation in their specific handicrafts because they relied on them for their livelihood. This contributed significantly to the prosperity of handicrafts in India. It also led to the development of new techniques in order to find ways to please the patrons.